يعرض 1 - 20 نتائج من 42 نتيجة بحث عن '"neurologic conditions"', وقت الاستعلام: 0.60s تنقيح النتائج
  1. 1
    Academic Journal
  2. 2
    Academic Journal
  3. 3
  4. 4
  5. 5
  6. 6
  7. 7
    Academic Journal
  8. 8
  9. 9
  10. 10
    Academic Journal
  11. 11
    Academic Journal

    المصدر: 1-15 ; Disability and Rehabilitation

    وصف الملف: application/pdf

    Relation: Christopher, A., Kraft, E., Olenick, H., Kiesling, R., & Doty, A. (2019). The reliability and validity of the Timed Up and Go as a clinical tool in individuals with and without disabilities across a lifespan: a systematic review. Disability and Rehabilitation, 1-15.; http://hdl.handle.net/11250/2637476; https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2019.1682066

  12. 12
  13. 13
    Image
  14. 14
    Image
  15. 15
    Academic Journal

    وصف الملف: application/pdf

    Relation: Ravi, Karthik; Paidas, Michael J.; Saad, Ali; Jayakumar, Arumugam R. (2021). "Astrocytes in rare neurological conditions: Morphological and functional considerations." Journal of Comparative Neurology 529(10): 2676-2705.; https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/167801; Journal of Comparative Neurology; Sakurai, A., Makioka, K., Fukuda, T., Takatama, M., & Okamoto, K. ( 2013 ). Accumulation of phosphorylated TDP‐43 in the CNS of a patient with Cockayne syndrome. Neuropathology, 33 ( 6 ), 673 – 677. https://doi.org/10.1111/neup.12038; Wang, L., Wang, Y., Zhou, S., Yang, L., Shi, Q., Li, Y., Zhang, K., Yang, L., Zhao, M., & Yang, Q. ( 2016 ). Imbalance between glutamate and GABA in Fmr1 knockout astrocytes influences neuronal development. Genes (Basel), 7 ( 8 ), 45. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes7080045; Waters, C. H., Faust, P. L., Powers, J., Vinters, H., Moskowitz, C., Nygaard, T., Hunt, A. L., & Fahn, S. ( 1993 ). Neuropathology of lubag (x‐linked dystonia parkinsonism). Movement Disorders, 8 ( 3 ), 387 – 390. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.870080328; Wei, H., Zou, H., Sheikh, A. M., Malik, M., Dobkin, C., Brown, W. T., & Li, X. ( 2011 ). IL‐6 is increased in the cerebellum of autistic brain and alters neural cell adhesion, migration and synaptic formation. Journal of Neuroinflammation, 8, 52. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-2094-8-52; Weidenheim, K. M., Dickson, D. W., & Rapin, I. ( 2009 ). Neuropathology of Cockayne syndrome: Evidence for impaired development, premature aging, and neurodegeneration. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 130 ( 9 ), 619 – 636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mad.2009.07.006; Wenning, G. K., & Jellinger, K. A. ( 2005 ). The role of alpha‐synuclein in the pathogenesis of multiple system atrophy. Acta Neuropathologica, 109 ( 2 ), 129 – 140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-004-0935-y; Wenzel, H. J., Hunsaker, M. R., Greco, C. M., Willemsen, R., & Berman, R. F. ( 2010 ). Ubiquitin‐positive intranuclear inclusions in neuronal and glial cells in a mouse model of the fragile X premutation. Brain Research, 1318, 155 – 166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2009.12.077; White, E. J., Trigatti, B. L., & Igdoura, S. A. ( 2017 ). Suppression of NK and CD8(+) T cells reduces astrogliosis but accelerates cerebellar dysfunction and shortens life span in a mouse model of Sandhoff disease. Journal of Neuroimmunology, 306, 55 – 67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2017.03.004; White, F. A., Jung, H., & Miller, R. J. ( 2007 ). Chemokines and the pathophysiology of neuropathic pain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104 ( 51 ), 20151 – 20158. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0709250104; Whitney, E. R., Kemper, T. L., Rosene, D. L., Bauman, M. L., & Blatt, G. J. ( 2009 ). Density of cerebellar basket and stellate cells in autism: Evidence for a late developmental loss of Purkinje cells. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 87 ( 10 ), 2245 – 2254. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.22056; Wilkinson, F. L., Holley, R. J., Langford‐Smith, K. J., Badrinath, S., Liao, A., Langford‐Smith, A., Cooper, J. D., Jones, S. A., Wraith, J. E., Wynn, R. F., Merry, C. L. R., & Bigger, B. W. ( 2012 ). Neuropathology in mouse models of mucopolysaccharidosis type I, IIIA and IIIB. PLoS One, 7 ( 4 ), e35787. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035787; Wong, M., Ess, K. C., Uhlmann, E. J., Jansen, L. A., Li, W., Crino, P. B., Mennerick, S., Yamada, K. A., & Gutmann, D. H. ( 2003 ). Impaired glial glutamate transport in a mouse tuberous sclerosis epilepsy model. Annals of Neurology, 54 ( 2 ), 251 – 256. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.10648; Yamano, Y., & Coler‐Reilly, A. ( 2017 ). HTLV‐1 induces a Th1‐like state in CD4(+)CCR4(+) T cells that produces an inflammatory positive feedback loop via astrocytes in HAM/TSP. Journal of Neuroimmunology, 304, 51 – 55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2016.08.012; Yan, E., Li, B., Gu, L., Hertz, L., & Peng, L. ( 2013 ). Mechanisms for L‐channel‐mediated increase in [Ca(2+)]i and its reduction by anti‐bipolar drugs in cultured astrocytes combined with its mRNA expression in freshly isolated cells support the importance of astrocytic L‐channels. Cell Calcium, 54 ( 5 ), 335 – 342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceca.2013.08.002; Yang, X. L., Wang, X., Shao, L., Jiang, G. T., Min, J. W., Mei, X. Y., He, X. H., Liu, W. H., Huang, W. X., & Peng, B. W. ( 2019 ). TRPV1 mediates astrocyte activation and interleukin‐1beta release induced by hypoxic ischemia (HI). Journal of Neuroinflammation, 16 ( 1 ), 114. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-019-1487-3; Ylikoski, J., Collan, Y., & Palva, T. ( 1981 ). Further observations in the eighth nerve in Meniere’s disease. Acta Neuropathologica, 54 ( 2 ), 157 – 159. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00689410; Yoon, H., Walters, G., Paulsen, A. R., & Scarisbrick, I. A. ( 2017 ). Astrocyte heterogeneity across the brain and spinal cord occurs developmentally, in adulthood and in response to demyelination. PLoS One, 12 ( 7 ), e0180697. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180697; Zeng, L. H., Bero, A. W., Zhang, B., Holtzman, D. M., & Wong, M. ( 2010 ). Modulation of astrocyte glutamate transporters decreases seizures in a mouse model of tuberous sclerosis complex. Neurobiology of Disease, 37 ( 3 ), 764 – 771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2009.12.020; Zeng, L. H., Ouyang, Y., Gazit, V., Cirrito, J. R., Jansen, L. A., Ess, K. C., Yamada, K. A., Wozniak, D. F., Holtzman, D. M., Gutmann, D. H., & Wong, M. ( 2007 ). Abnormal glutamate homeostasis and impaired synaptic plasticity and learning in a mouse model of tuberous sclerosis complex. Neurobiology of Disease, 28 ( 2 ), 184 – 196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2007.07.015; Zhang, G. H., Lv, M. M., Wang, S., Chen, L., Qian, N. S., Tang, Y., Zhang, X. D., Ren, P. C., Gao, C. J., Sun, X. D., & Xu, L. X. ( 2011 ). Spinal astrocytic activation is involved in a virally‐induced rat model of neuropathic pain. PLoS One, 6 ( 9 ), e23059. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0023059; Zhang, M., Strnatka, D., Donohue, C., Hallows, J. L., Vincent, I., & Erickson, R. P. ( 2008 ). Astrocyte‐only Npc1 reduces neuronal cholesterol and triples life span of Npc1−/− mice. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 86 ( 13 ), 2848 – 2856. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.21730; Zhao, Y., Xiao, J., Ueda, M., Wang, Y., Hines, M., Nowak, T. S., Jr., & LeDoux, M. S. ( 2008 ). Glial elements contribute to stress‐induced torsinA expression in the CNS and peripheral nervous system. Neuroscience, 155 ( 2 ), 439 – 453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.04.053; Zhou, J., Kong, H., Hua, X., Xiao, M., Ding, J., & Hu, G. ( 2008 ). Altered blood‐brain barrier integrity in adult aquaporin‐4 knockout mice. Neuroreport, 19 ( 1 ), 1 – 5. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0b013e3282f2b4eb; Zibaee, S., Fraser, G., Jakes, R., Owen, D., Serpell, L. C., Crowther, R. A., & Goedert, M. ( 2010 ). Human beta‐synuclein rendered fibrillogenic by designed mutations. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 285 ( 49 ), 38555 – 38567. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M110.160721; Zou, J., Zhang, B., Gutmann, D. H., & Wong, M. ( 2017 ). Postnatal reduction of tuberous sclerosis complex 1 expression in astrocytes and neurons causes seizures in an age‐dependent manner. Epilepsia, 58 ( 12 ), 2053 – 2063. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.13923; Abouhamed, M., Grobe, K., San, I. V. L. C., Thelen, S., Honnert, U., Balda, M. S., Matter, K., & Bähler, M. ( 2009 ). Myosin IXa regulates epithelial differentiation and its deficiency results in hydrocephalus. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 20 ( 24 ), 5074 – 5085. http://dx.doi.org/10.1091/mbc.e09-04-0291; Alshafai, L., Ochi, A., Go, C., McCoy, B., Hawkins, C., Otsubo, H., Snead, O. C., Rutka, J., & Widjaja, E. ( 2014 ). Clinical, EEG, MRI, MEG, and surgical outcomes of pediatric epilepsy with astrocytic inclusions versus focal cortical dysplasia. Epilepsia, 55 ( 10 ), 1568 – 1575. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.12756; Altshuler, L. L., Abulseoud, O. A., Foland‐Ross, L., Bartzokis, G., Chang, S., Mintz, J., Hellemann, G., & Vinters, H. V. ( 2010 ). Amygdala astrocyte reduction in subjects with major depressive disorder but not bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disorders, 12 ( 5 ), 541 – 549. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2010.00838.x; Ando, H., Sato, T., Tomaru, U., Yoshida, M., Utsunomiya, A., Yamauchi, J., Araya, N., Yagishita, N., Coler‐Reilly, A., Shimizu, Y., Yudoh, K., Hasegawa, Y., Nishioka, K., Nakajima, T., Jacobson, S., & Yamano, Y. ( 2013 ). Positive feedback loop via astrocytes causes chronic inflammation in virus‐associated myelopathy. Brain, 136 (Pt 9), 2876 – 2887. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awt183; Andres Benito, P., Dominguez Gonzalez, M., & Ferrer, I. ( 2018 ). Altered gene transcription linked to astrocytes and oligodendrocytes in frontal cortex in Creutzfeldt‐Jakob disease. Prion, 12 ( 3–4 ), 216 – 225. https://doi.org/10.1080/19336896.2018.1500076; Araujo, B. H. S., Kaid, C., De Souza, J. S., Gomes da Silva, S., Goulart, E., Caires, L. C. J., Musso, C. M., Torres, L. B., Ferrasa, A., Herai, R., Zatz, M., Okamoto, O. K., & Cavalheiro, E. A. ( 2018 ). Down Syndrome iPSC‐derived astrocytes impair neuronal synaptogenesis and the mTOR pathway in vitro. Molecular Neurobiology, 55 ( 7 ), 5962 – 5975. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-017-0818-6; Araya, N., Sato, T., Ando, H., Tomaru, U., Yoshida, M., Coler‐Reilly, A., Yagishita, N., Yamauchi, J., Hasegawa, A., Kannagi, M., Hasegawa, Y., Takahashi, K., Kunitomo, Y., Tanaka, Y., Nakajima, T., Nishioka, K., Utsunomiya, A., Jacobson, S., & Yamano, Y. ( 2014 ). HTLV‐1 induces a Th1‐like state in CD4+CCR4+ T cells. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 124 ( 8 ), 3431 – 3442. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI75250; Ariza, J., Rogers, H., Hartvigsen, A., Snell, M., Dill, M., Judd, D., Hagerman, P., & Martinez‐Cerdeno, V. ( 2017 ). Iron accumulation and dysregulation in the putamen in fragile X‐associated tremor/ataxia syndrome. Movement Disorders, 32 ( 4 ), 585 – 591. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.26902; Arregui, L., Benitez, J. A., Razgado, L. F., Vergara, P., & Segovia, J. ( 2011 ). Adenoviral astrocyte‐specific expression of BDNF in the striata of mice transgenic for Huntington’s disease delays the onset of the motor phenotype. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, 31 ( 8 ), 1229 – 1243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10571-011-9725-y; Assadi, M., Wang, D. J., Velazquez‐Rodriquez, Y., & Leone, P. ( 2013 ). Multi‐voxel 1H‐MRS in metachromatic Leukodystrophy. Journal of Central Nervous System Disease, 5, 25 – 30. https://doi.org/10.4137/JCNSD.S11861; Auge, E., Pelegri, C., Manich, G., Cabezon, I., Guinovart, J. J., Duran, J., & Vilaplana, J. ( 2018 ). Astrocytes and neurons produce distinct types of polyglucosan bodies in Lafora disease. Glia, 66 ( 10 ), 2094 – 2107. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23463; Baarine, M., Khan, M., Singh, A., & Singh, I. ( 2015 ). Functional characterization of IPSC‐derived brain cells as a model for X‐linked Adrenoleukodystrophy. PLoS One, 10 ( 11 ), e0143238. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143238; Ballestin, R., Blasco‐Ibanez, J. M., Crespo, C., Nacher, J., Lopez‐Hidalgo, R., Gilabert‐Juan, J., Moltó, D., & Varea, E. ( 2014 ). Astrocytes of the murine model for Down Syndrome Ts65Dn display reduced intracellular ionic zinc. Neurochemistry International, 75, 48 – 53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2014.05.013; Bambrick, L. L., Yarowsky, P. J., & Krueger, B. K. ( 2003 ). Altered astrocyte calcium homeostasis and proliferation in theTs65Dn mouse, a model of down syndrome. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 73 ( 1 ), 89 – 94. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.10630; Barkovich, A. J. ( 2010 ). Current concepts of polymicrogyria. Neuroradiology, 52 ( 6 ), 479 – 487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00234-009-0644-2; Barnett, B. P., Bressler, J., Chen, T., Hutchins, G. M., Crain, B. J., & Kaufmann, W. E. ( 2011 ). alphaB‐crystallin negative astrocytic inclusions. Brain Development, 33 ( 4 ), 349 – 352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2010.06.013; Barragan‐Iglesias, P., Oidor‐Chan, V. H., Loeza‐Alcocer, E., Pineda‐Farias, J. B., Velazquez‐Lagunas, I., Salinas‐Abarca, A. B., Hong, E., Sánchez‐Mendozae, A., Delgado‐Lezama, R., Price, T. J., & Granados‐Soto, V. ( 2018 ). Evaluation of the neonatal streptozotocin model of diabetes in rats: Evidence for a model of neuropathic pain. Pharmacological Reports, 70 ( 2 ), 294 – 303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharep.2017.09.002; Baslow, M. H. ( 2000 ). Canavan’s spongiform leukodystrophy: A clinical anatomy of a genetic metabolic CNS disease. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 15 ( 2 ), 61 – 69. https://doi.org/10.1385/JMN:15:2:61; Baslow, M. H. ( 2003 ). Brain N‐acetylaspartate as a molecular water pump and its role in the etiology of Canavan disease: A mechanistic explanation. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 21 ( 3 ), 185 – 190. https://doi.org/10.1385/jmn:21:3:185; Baslow, M. H., & Guilfoyle, D. N. ( 2009 ). Are astrocytes the missing link between lack of brain aspartoacylase activity and the spongiform leukodystrophy in Canavan disease? Neurochemical Research, 34 ( 9 ), 1523 – 1534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-009-9958-z; Baudry, M., Yao, Y., Simmons, D., Liu, J., & Bi, X. ( 2003 ). Postnatal development of inflammation in a murine model of Niemann‐pick type C disease: Immunohistochemical observations of microglia and astroglia. Experimental Neurology, 184 ( 2 ), 887 – 903. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-4886(03)00345-5; Becker, E. B., & Stoodley, C. J. ( 2013 ). Autism spectrum disorder and the cerebellum. International Review of Neurobiology, 113, 1 – 34. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-418700-9.00001-0; Bennett, J. L., Lam, C., Kalluri, S. R., Saikali, P., Bautista, K., Dupree, C., Glogowska, M., Case, D., Antel, J. P., Owens, G. P., Gilden, D., Nessler, S., Stadelmann, C., & Hemmer, B. ( 2009 ). Intrathecal pathogenic anti‐aquaporin‐4 antibodies in early neuromyelitis optica. Annals of Neurology, 66 ( 5 ), 617 – 629. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.21802; Berger, J. R., Aksamit, A. J., Clifford, D. B., Davis, L., Koralnik, I. J., Sejvar, J. J., Major, E. O., & Nath, A. ( 2013 ). PML diagnostic criteria: Consensus statement from the AAN Neuroinfectious disease section. Neurology, 80 ( 15 ), 1430 – 1438. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e31828c2fa1; Bochukova, E. G., Lawler, K., Croizier, S., Keogh, J. M., Patel, N., Strohbehn, G., Lo, K. K., Humphrey, J., Hokken‐Koelega, A., Damen, L., Donze, S., Bouret, S. G., Plagnol, V., & Farooqi, I. S. ( 2018 ). A transcriptomic signature of the hypothalamic response to fasting and BDNF deficiency in Prader‐Willi Syndrome. Cell Reports, 22 ( 13 ), 3401 – 3408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2018.03.018; Bokhari, M. R., Samanta, D., & Bokhari, S. R. A. ( 2020 ). Canavan disease. StatPearls.; Boor, P. K., de Groot, K., Waisfisz, Q., Kamphorst, W., Oudejans, C. B., Powers, J. M., van der Pronk, J. C., Scheper, G. C., & Knaap, M. S. ( 2005 ). MLC1: A novel protein in distal astroglial processes. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 64 ( 5 ), 412 – 419. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnen/64.5.412; Borbon, I., Totenhagen, J., Fiorenza, M. T., Canterini, S., Ke, W., Trouard, T., & Erickson, R. P. ( 2012 ). Niemann‐pick C1 mice, a model of "juvenile Alzheimer’s disease", with normal gene expression in neurons and fibrillary astrocytes show long term survival and delayed neurodegeneration. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 30 ( 4 ), 875 – 887. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2012-120199; Borges, C. G., Canani, C. R., Fernandes, C. G., Zanatta, A., Seminotti, B., Ribeiro, C. A., Leipnitz, G., Vargas, C. R., & Wajner, M. ( 2015 ). Reactive nitrogen species mediate oxidative stress and astrogliosis provoked by in vivo administration of phytanic acid in cerebellum of adolescent rats: A potential contributing pathomechanism of cerebellar injury in peroxisomal disorders. Neuroscience, 304, 122 – 132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.07.028; Borrett, D., & Becker, L. E. ( 1985 ). Alexander’s disease. A disease of astrocytes. Brain, 108 (Pt 2, 367 – 385. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/108.2.367; Brennan‐Krohn, T., Salloway, S., Correia, S., Dong, M., & de la Monte, S. M. ( 2010 ). Glial vascular degeneration in CADASIL. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 21 ( 4 ), 1393 – 1402. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-2010-100036; Brinar, V. V., & Poser, C. M. ( 2008 ). Disseminated encephalomyelitis in adults. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery, 110 ( 9 ), 913 – 918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2008.06.015; Bushong, E. A., Martone, M. E., Jones, Y. Z., & Ellisman, M. H. ( 2002 ). Protoplasmic astrocytes in CA1 stratum radiatum occupy separate anatomical domains. The Journal of Neuroscience, 22 ( 1 ), 183 – 192 Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11756501; Cao, Z., Hulsizer, S., Cui, Y., Pretto, D. L., Kim, K. H., Hagerman, P. J., Tassone, F., & Pessah, I. N. ( 2013 ). Enhanced asynchronous ca(2+) oscillations associated with impaired glutamate transport in cortical astrocytes expressing Fmr1 gene premutation expansion. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 288 ( 19 ), 13831 – 13841. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M112.441055; Cekanaviciute, E., & Buckwalter, M. S. ( 2016 ). Astrocytes: Integrative regulators of Neuroinflammation in stroke and other neurological diseases. Neurotherapeutics, 13 ( 4 ), 685 – 701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-016-0477-8; Cervos‐Navarro, J. ( 1990 ). Heredopathia atactica polyneuritiformis (Refsum’s disease). Histology and Histopathology, 5 ( 4 ), 439 – 450 Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1724932; Chaussenot, A., Borg, M., Bayreuther, C., & Lebrun, C. ( 2008 ). Late cerebellar ataxia associated with fragile X premutation. Revue Neurologique (Paris), 164 ( 11 ), 957 – 963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurol.2008.03.022; Chavez, C. E., Oyarzun, J. E., Avendano, B. C., Mellado, L. A., Inostroza, C. A., Alvear, T. F., & Orellana, J. A. ( 2019 ). The opening of Connexin 43 hemichannels alters hippocampal astrocyte function and neuronal survival in prenatally LPS‐exposed adult offspring. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 13, 460. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00460; Chen, C., Jiang, P., Xue, H., Peterson, S. E., Tran, H. T., McCann, A. E., Parast, M. M., Li, S., Pleasure, D. E., Laurent, L. C., Loring, J. F., Liu, Y., & Deng, W. ( 2014 ). Role of astroglia in Down’s syndrome revealed by patient‐derived human‐induced pluripotent stem cells. Nature Communications, 5, 4430. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms5430; Chen, G., Park, C. K., Xie, R. G., Berta, T., Nedergaard, M., & Ji, R. R. ( 2014 ). Connexin‐43 induces chemokine release from spinal cord astrocytes to maintain late‐phase neuropathic pain in mice. Brain, 137 (Pt 8, 2193 – 2209. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awu140; Chen, S., Hui, H., Zhang, D., & Xue, Y. ( 2010 ). The combination of morphine and minocycline may be a good treatment for intractable post‐herpetic neuralgia. Medical Hypotheses, 75 ( 6 ), 663 – 665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2010.08.013; Chen, T., Lennon, V. A., Liu, Y. U., Bosco, D. B., Li, Y., Yi, M. H., Zhu, J., Wei, S., & Wu, L. J. ( 2020 ). Astrocyte‐microglia interaction drives evolving neuromyelitis optica lesion. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 130 ( 8 ), 4025 – 4038. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI134816; Cheng, C., Lau, S. K., & Doering, L. C. ( 2016 ). Astrocyte‐secreted thrombospondin‐1 modulates synapse and spine defects in the fragile X mouse model. Molecular Brain, 9 ( 1 ), 74. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13041-016-0256-9; Cheng, C., Sourial, M., & Doering, L. C. ( 2012 ). Astrocytes and developmental plasticity in fragile X. Neural Plasticity, 2012, 197491 – 197412. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/197491; Chiulli, N., Codazzi, F., Di Cesare, A., Gravaghi, C., Zacchetti, D., & Grohovaz, F. ( 2007 ). Sphingosylphosphocholine effects on cultured astrocytes reveal mechanisms potentially involved in neurotoxicity in Niemann‐pick type a disease. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 26 ( 4 ), 875 – 881. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05732.x; Choi, Y. P., Head, M. W., Ironside, J. W., & Priola, S. A. ( 2014 ). Uptake and degradation of protease‐sensitive and ‐resistant forms of abnormal human prion protein aggregates by human astrocytes. The American Journal of Pathology, 184 ( 12 ), 3299 – 3307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.08.005; Christopherson, K. S., Ullian, E. M., Stokes, C. C., Mullowney, C. E., Hell, J. W., Agah, A., Lawler, J., Mosher, D. F., Bornstein, P., & Barres, B. A. ( 2005 ). Thrombospondins are astrocyte‐secreted proteins that promote CNS synaptogenesis. Cell, 120 ( 3 ), 421 – 433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2004.12.020; Chrobak, A. A., & Soltys, Z. ( 2017 ). Bergmann glia, long‐term depression, and autism Spectrum disorder. Molecular Neurobiology, 54 ( 2 ), 1156 – 1166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-016-9719-3; Chu, K., Lee, S. T., Sinn, D. I., Ko, S. Y., Kim, E. H., Kim, J. M., Kim, S. J., Park, D. K., Jung, K. H., Song, E. C., Lee, S. K., Kim, M., & Roh, J. K. ( 2007 ). Pharmacological induction of ischemic tolerance by glutamate Transporter‐1 (EAAT2) upregulation. Stroke, 38 ( 1 ), 177 – 182. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000252091.36912.65; Clarner, T., Wieczorek, N., Krauspe, B., Jansen, K., Beyer, C., & Kipp, M. ( 2014 ). Astroglial redistribution of aquaporin 4 during spongy degeneration in a Canavan disease mouse model. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 53 ( 1 ), 22 – 30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12031-013-0184-4; Cole, A. J., Andermann, F., Taylor, L., Olivier, A., Rasmussen, T., Robitaille, Y., & Spire, J. P. ( 1988 ). The Landau‐Kleffner syndrome of acquired epileptic aphasia: Unusual clinical outcome, surgical experience, and absence of encephalitis. Neurology, 38 ( 1 ), 31 – 38. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.38.1.31; Colombo, J. A., Quinn, B., & Puissant, V. ( 2002 ). Disruption of astroglial interlaminar processes in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain Research Bulletin, 58 ( 2 ), 235 – 242. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0361-9230(02)00785-2; Colombo, J. A., Reisin, H. D., Jones, M., & Bentham, C. ( 2005 ). Development of interlaminar astroglial processes in the cerebral cortex of control and Down’s syndrome human cases. Experimental Neurology, 193 ( 1 ), 207 – 217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.11.024; Crawford, J. D., Chandley, M. J., Szebeni, K., Szebeni, A., Waters, B., & Ordway, G. A. ( 2015 ). Elevated GFAP protein in anterior cingulate cortical White matter in males with autism Spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 8 ( 6 ), 649 – 657. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1480; Damadzic, R., Bigelow, L. B., Krimer, L. S., Goldenson, D. A., Saunders, R. C., Kleinman, J. E., & Herman, M. M. ( 2001 ). A quantitative immunohistochemical study of astrocytes in the entorhinal cortex in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depression: Absence of significant astrocytosis. Brain Research Bulletin, 55 ( 5 ), 611 – 618. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0361-9230(01)00529-9; de Baecque, C. M., Suzuki, K., Rapin, I., Johnson, A. B., & Whethers, D. L. ( 1975 ). GM2‐gangliosidosis, AB variant: Clinico‐pathological study of a case. Acta Neuropathologica, 33 ( 3 ), 207 – 226. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00688395; de Waard, D. M., & Bugiani, M. ( 2020 ). Astrocyte‐oligodendrocyte‐microglia crosstalk in Astrocytopathies. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 14, 608073. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2020.608073; Dehghani, A., Khoramkish, M., & Shahsavari Isfahani, S. ( 2019 ). Challenges in the daily living activities of patients with multiple sclerosis: A qualitative content analysis. International Journal of Community Based Nursing and Midwifery, 7 ( 3 ), 201 – 210. https://doi.org/10.30476/IJCBNM.2019.44995; Del Tredici, K., Ludolph, A. C., Feldengut, S., Jacob, C., Reichmann, H., Bohl, J. R., & Braak, H. ( 2020 ). Fabry disease with concomitant Lewy body disease. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 79 ( 4 ), 378 – 392. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnen/nlz139; Deng, X. T., Wu, M. Z., Xu, N., Ma, P. C., & Song, X. J. ( 2017 ). Activation of ephrinB‐EphB receptor signalling in rat spinal cord contributes to maintenance of diabetic neuropathic pain. European Journal of Pain, 21 ( 2 ), 278 – 288. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejp.922; Desilva, T. M., Billiards, S. S., Borenstein, N. S., Trachtenberg, F. L., Volpe, J. J., Kinney, H. C., & Rosenberg, P. A. ( 2008 ). Glutamate transporter EAAT2 expression is up‐regulated in reactive astrocytes in human periventricular leukomalacia. The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 508 ( 2 ), 238 – 248. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.21667; Di Pauli, F., Hoftberger, R., Reindl, M., Beer, R., Rhomberg, P., Schanda, K., Sato, D., Fujihara, K., Lassmann, H., Schmutzhard, E., & Berger, T. ( 2015 ). Fulminant demyelinating encephalomyelitis: Insights from antibody studies and neuropathology. Neurology Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation, 2 ( 6 ), e175. https://doi.org/10.1212/NXI.0000000000000175; Dominguez‐Pinos, M. D., Paez, P., Jimenez, A. J., Weil, B., Arraez, M. A., Perez‐Figares, J. M., & Rodriguez, E. M. ( 2005 ). Ependymal denudation and alterations of the subventricular zone occur in human fetuses with a moderate communicating hydrocephalus. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 64 ( 7 ), 595 – 604. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.jnen.0000171648.86718.bb; Drago, F., Lombardi, M., Prada, I., Gabrielli, M., Joshi, P., Cojoc, D., Franck, J., Fournier, I., Vizioli, J., & Verderio, C. ( 2017 ). ATP modifies the proteome of extracellular vesicles released by microglia and influences their action on astrocytes. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 8, 910. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2017.00910; Duran, J., & Guinovart, J. J. ( 2015 ). Brain glycogen in health and disease. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 46, 70 – 77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2015.08.007; Dwyer, C. A., Scudder, S. L., Lin, Y., Dozier, L. E., Phan, D., Allen, N. J., Patrick, G. N., & Esko, J. D. ( 2017 ). Neurodevelopmental changes in excitatory synaptic structure and function in the cerebral cortex of Sanfilippo Syndrome IIIA mice. Scientific Reports, 7, 46576. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep46576; Fernandes, E. R., de Andrade, H. F., Jr., Lancellotti, C. L., Quaresma, J. A., Demachki, S., da Costa Vasconcelos, P. F., & Duarte, M. I. ( 2011 ). In situ apoptosis of adaptive immune cells and the cellular escape of rabies virus in CNS from patients with human rabies transmitted by Desmodus rotundus. Virus Research, 156 ( 1–2 ), 121 – 126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2011.01.006; Ferrand, F. X., Pillard, P., Carozzo, C., Marchal, T., Seurin, M. J., & Escriou, C. ( 2015 ). Spinal neurenteric cyst in a dog. Irish Veterinary Journal, 68, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13620-015-0037-2; Franco, C., Genis, L., Navarro, J. A., Perez‐Domper, P., Fernandez, A. M., Schneuwly, S., & Torres Aleman, I. ( 2017 ). A role for astrocytes in cerebellar deficits in frataxin deficiency: Protection by insulin‐like growth factor I. Molecular and Cellular Neurosciences, 80, 100 – 110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcn.2017.02.008; Frati, G., Luciani, M., Meneghini, V., De Cicco, S., Stahlman, M., Blomqvist, M., Grossi, S., Filocamo, M., Moreno, F., Menegon, A., Martino, S., & Gritti, A. ( 2018 ). Human iPSC‐based models defective glial and neuronal differentiation from neural progenitor cells in metachromatic leukodystrophy. Cell Death & Disease, 9 ( 6 ), 698. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41419-018-0737-0; Gearing, M., Juncos, J. L., Procaccio, V., Gutekunst, C. A., Marino‐Rodriguez, E. M., Gyure, K. A., Ono, S., Santoianni, R., Krawiecki, N. S., Wallace, D. C., & Wainer, B. H. ( 2002 ). Aggregation of actin and cofilin in identical twins with juvenile‐onset dystonia. Annals of Neurology, 52 ( 4 ), 465 – 476. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.10319; Ghosh, M., Balbi, M., Hellal, F., Dichgans, M., Lindauer, U., & Plesnila, N. ( 2015 ). Pericytes are involved in the pathogenesis of cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy. Annals of Neurology, 78 ( 6 ), 887 – 900. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24512; Gibb, W. R., Kilford, L., & Marsden, C. D. ( 1992 ). Severe generalised dystonia associated with a mosaic pattern of striatal gliosis. Movement Disorders, 7 ( 3 ), 217 – 223. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.870070305; Gilg, A. G., Singh, A. K., & Singh, I. ( 2000 ). Inducible nitric oxide synthase in the central nervous system of patients with X‐adrenoleukodystrophy. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 59 ( 12 ), 1063 – 1069. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnen/59.12.1063; Gipson, T. T., Gerner, G., Wilson, M. A., Blue, M. E., & Johnston, M. V. ( 2013 ). Potential for treatment of severe autism in tuberous sclerosis complex. World Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2 ( 3 ), 16 – 25. https://doi.org/10.5409/wjcp.v2.i3.16; Gortz, A. L., Peferoen, L. A. N., Gerritsen, W. H., van Noort, J. M., Bugiani, M., & Amor, S. ( 2018 ). Heat shock protein expression in cerebral X‐linked adrenoleukodystrophy reveals astrocyte stress prior to myelin loss. Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology, 44 ( 4 ), 363 – 376. https://doi.org/10.1111/nan.12399; Gortzen, A., Schluter, S., & Veh, R. W. ( 2004 ). Anti‐astrocyte autoantibodies in Guillain‐Barre Syndrome—Possible involvement in the pathophysiology of a psychosyndrome? Autoimmunity, 37 ( 6–7 ), 521 – 528. https://doi.org/10.1080/08916930412331279840; Greco, C. M., Berman, R. F., Martin, R. M., Tassone, F., Schwartz, P. H., Chang, A., Trapp, B. D., Iwahashi, C., Brunberg, J., Grigsby, J., Hessl, D., Becker, E. J., Papazian, J., Leehey, M. A., Hagerman, R. J., & Hagerman, P. J. ( 2006 ). Neuropathology of fragile X‐associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS). Brain, 129 ( Pt 1 ), 243 – 255. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awh683; Gregory, M. A., Gregory, R. J., & Podd, J. V. ( 2005 ). Understanding Guillain‐Barre syndrome and central nervous system involvement. Rehabilitation Nursing, 30 ( 5 ), 207 – 212. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2048-7940.2005.tb00112.x; Grier, M. D., Carson, R. P., & Lagrange, A. H. ( 2015 ). Toward a broader view of Ube3a in a mouse model of Angelman syndrome: Expression in brain, spinal cord, sciatic nerve and glial cells. PLoS One, 10 ( 4 ), e0124649. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124649; Gudo, E. S., Silva‐Barbosa, S. D., Linhares‐Lacerda, L., Ribeiro‐Alves, M., Real, S. C., Bou‐Habib, D. C., & Savino, W. ( 2015 ). HAM/TSP‐derived HTLV‐1‐infected T cell lines promote morphological and functional changes in human astrocytes cell lines: Possible role in the enhanced T cells recruitment into central nervous system. Virology Journal, 12, 165. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12985-015-0398-x; Guerrini, R., & Parrini, E. ( 2010 ). Neuronal migration disorders. Neurobiology of Disease, 38 ( 2 ), 154 – 166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2009.02.008; Hayakawa, K., Pham, L. D., Arai, K., & Lo, E. H. ( 2014 ). Reactive astrocytes promote adhesive interactions between brain endothelium and endothelial progenitor cells via HMGB1 and beta‐2 integrin signaling. Stem Cell Research, 12 ( 2 ), 531 – 538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scr.2013.12.008; Haynes, R. L., Folkerth, R. D., Keefe, R. J., Sung, I., Swzeda, L. I., Rosenberg, P. A., Volpe, J. J., & Kinney, H. C. ( 2003 ). Nitrosative and oxidative injury to premyelinating oligodendrocytes in periventricular leukomalacia. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 62 ( 5 ), 441 – 450. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnen/62.5.441; Haynes, R. L., Folkerth, R. D., Trachtenberg, F. L., Volpe, J. J., & Kinney, H. C. ( 2009 ). Nitrosative stress and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in periventricular leukomalacia. Acta Neuropathologica, 118 ( 3 ), 391 – 399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-009-0540-1; Head, M. W., Corbin, E., & Goldman, J. E. ( 1994 ). Coordinate and independent regulation of alpha B‐crystallin and hsp27 expression in response to physiological stress. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 159 ( 1 ), 41 – 50. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.1041590107; Heaven, M. R., Flint, D., Randall, S. M., Sosunov, A. A., Wilson, L., Barnes, S., Goldman, J. E., Muddiman, D. C., & Brenner, M. ( 2016 ). Composition of Rosenthal fibers, the protein aggregate Hallmark of Alexander disease. Journal of Proteome Research, 15 ( 7 ), 2265 – 2282. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jproteome.6b00316; Helyes, Z., Tekus, V., Szentes, N., Pohoczky, K., Botz, B., Kiss, T., Kemény, Á., Környei, Z., Tóth, K., Lénárt, N., Ábrahám, H., Pinteaux, E., Francis, S., Sensi, S., Dénes, Á., & Goebel, A. ( 2019 ). Transfer of complex regional pain syndrome to mice via human autoantibodies is mediated by interleukin‐1‐induced mechanisms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116 ( 26 ), 13067 – 13076. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1820168116; Hemley, S. J., Bilston, L. E., Cheng, S., Chan, J. N., & Stoodley, M. A. ( 2013 ). Aquaporin‐4 expression in post‐traumatic syringomyelia. Journal of Neurotrauma, 30 ( 16 ), 1457 – 1467. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2012.2614; Hendriksen, R. G., Schipper, S., Hoogland, G., Schijns, O. E., Dings, J. T., Aalbers, M. W., & Vles, J. S. ( 2016 ). Dystrophin distribution and expression in human and experimental temporal lobe epilepsy. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 10, 174. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2016.00174; Hinson, S. R., Pittock, S. J., Lucchinetti, C. F., Roemer, S. F., Fryer, J. P., Kryzer, T. J., & Lennon, V. A. ( 2007 ). Pathogenic potential of IgG binding to water channel extracellular domain in neuromyelitis optica. Neurology, 69 ( 24 ), 2221 – 2231. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.WNL.0000289761.64862.ce; Hodges, J. L., Yu, X., Gilmore, A., Bennett, H., Tjia, M., Perna, J. F., Chen, C. C., Li, X., Lu, J., & Zuo, Y. ( 2017 ). Astrocytic contributions to synaptic and learning abnormalities in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome. Biological Psychiatry, 82 ( 2 ), 139 – 149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.08.036; Holley, R. J., Ellison, S. M., Fil, D., O’Leary, C., McDermott, J., Senthivel, N., Langford‐Smith, A. W. W., Wilkinson, F. L., D’Souza, Z., Parker, H., Liao, A., Rowlston, S., Gleitz, H. F. E., Kan, S. H., Dickson, P. I., & Bigger, B. W. ( 2018 ). Macrophage enzyme and reduced inflammation drive brain correction of mucopolysaccharidosis IIIB by stem cell gene therapy. Brain, 141 ( 1 ), 99 – 116. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awx311; Hoppen, T., Jacobi, G., & Rister, M. ( 2003 ). Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE). Klinische Pädiatrie, 215 ( 5 ), 268 – 269. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2003-42671; Howe, C. L., Kaptzan, T., Magana, S. M., Ayers‐Ringler, J. R., LaFrance‐Corey, R. G., & Lucchinetti, C. F. ( 2014 ). Neuromyelitis optica IgG stimulates an immunological response in rat astrocyte cultures. Glia, 62 ( 5 ), 692 – 708. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.22635; Hu, H. L., Ni, X. S., Duff‐Canning, S., & Wang, X. P. ( 2016 ). Oxidative damage of copper chloride overload to the cultured rat astrocytes. American Journal of Translational Research, 8 ( 2 ), 1273 – 1280 Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27158414; Jacobs, S., & Doering, L. C. ( 2010 ). Astrocytes prevent abnormal neuronal development in the fragile x mouse. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30 ( 12 ), 4508 – 4514. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5027-09.2010; Jantzie, L. L., Talos, D. M., Selip, D. B., An, L., Jackson, M. C., Folkerth, R. D., Deng, W., & Jensen, F. E. ( 2010 ). Developmental regulation of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors in the premature brain and their protective role in a rodent model of periventricular leukomalacia. Neuron Glia Biology, 6 ( 4 ), 277 – 288. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1740925X11000111; Jawaid, S., Kidd, G. J., Wang, J., Swetlik, C., Dutta, R., & Trapp, B. D. ( 2018 ). Alterations in CA1 hippocampal synapses in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome. Glia, 66 ( 4 ), 789 – 800. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23284; Jehmlich, U., Ritzer, J., Grosche, J., Hartig, W., & Liebert, U. G. ( 2013 ). Experimental measles encephalitis in Lewis rats: Dissemination of infected neuronal cell subtypes. Journal of Neurovirology, 19 ( 5 ), 461 – 470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13365-013-0199-1; Jellinger, K. A. ( 2018 ). Multiple system atrophy: An oligodendroglioneural synucleinopathy 1. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 62 ( 3 ), 1141 – 1179. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-170397; Jesionek‐Kupnicka, D., Majchrowska, A., Krawczyk, J., Wendorff, J., Barcikowska, M., Lukaszek, S., & Liberski, P. P. ( 1997 ). Krabbe disease: An ultrastructural study of globoid cells and reactive astrocytes at the brain and optic nerves. Folia Neuropathologica, 35 ( 3 ), 155 – 162 Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9595850; Jogai, S., Radotra, B. D., & Banerjee, A. K. ( 2000 ). Immunohistochemical study of human rabies. Neuropathology, 20 ( 3 ), 197 – 203. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1789.2000.00332.x; Judson, M. C., Sosa‐Pagan, J. O., Del Cid, W. A., Han, J. E., & Philpot, B. D. ( 2014 ). Allelic specificity of Ube3a expression in the mouse brain during postnatal development. The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 522 ( 8 ), 1874 – 1896. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.23507; Kanner, S., Goldin, M., Galron, R., Ben Jacob, E., Bonifazi, P., & Barzilai, A. ( 2018 ). Astrocytes restore connectivity and synchronization in dysfunctional cerebellar networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115 ( 31 ), 8025 – 8030. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718582115; Karikkineth, A. C., Scheibye‐Knudsen, M., Fivenson, E., Croteau, D. L., & Bohr, V. A. ( 2017 ). Cockayne syndrome: Clinical features, model systems and pathways. Ageing Research Reviews, 33, 3 – 17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2016.08.002; Katsuragi, T., Iseki, E., Kosaka, K., Nishimura, T., Akiyama, H., Ikeda, K., & Kato, M. ( 1996 ). Immunohistochemical investigation of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)‐DR‐positive astrocytes in adrenoleukodystrophy brain. Neuroscience Letters, 219 ( 3 ), 207 – 210. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3940(96)13215-8; Kern, J. K. ( 2003 ). Purkinje cell vulnerability and autism: A possible etiological connection. Brain Dev, 25 ( 6 ), 377 – 382. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0387-7604(03)00056-1; Kettenmann, H., & Verkhratsky, A. ( 2008 ). Neuroglia: The 150 years after. Trends in Neurosciences, 31 ( 12 ), 653 – 659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2008.09.003; Kezuka, T., Usui, Y., Yamakawa, N., Matsunaga, Y., Matsuda, R., Masuda, M., Utsumi, H., Tanaka, K., & Goto, H. ( 2012 ). Relationship between NMO‐antibody and anti‐MOG antibody in optic neuritis. Journal of Neuro‐Ophthalmology, 32 ( 2 ), 107 – 110. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNO.0b013e31823c9b6c; Khan, M., Pahan, K., Singh, A. K., & Singh, I. ( 1998 ). Cytokine‐induced accumulation of very long‐chain fatty acids in rat C6 glial cells: Implication for X‐adrenoleukodystrophy. Journal of Neurochemistry, 71 ( 1 ), 78 – 87. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1471-4159.1998.71010078.x; Killeen, P. R. ( 2019 ). Models of attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder. Behavioural Processes, 162, 205 – 214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2019.01.001; Killeen, P. R., Russell, V. A., & Sergeant, J. A. ( 2013 ). A behavioral neuroenergetics theory of ADHD. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37 ( 4 ), 625 – 657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.02.011; Kim, D. Y., Zhang, H., Park, S., Kim, Y., Bae, C. R., Kim, Y. M., & Kwon, Y. G. ( 2020 ). CU06‐1004 (endothelial dysfunction blocker) ameliorates astrocyte end‐feet swelling by stabilizing endothelial cell junctions in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Journal of Molecular Medicine (Berlin, Germany), 98 ( 6 ), 875 – 886. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00109-020-01920-z; Kodama, H., Meguro, Y., Abe, T., Rayner, M. H., Suzuki, K. T., Kobayashi, S., & Nishimura, M. ( 1991 ). Genetic expression of Menkes disease in cultured astrocytes of the macular mouse. Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease, 14 ( 6 ), 896 – 901. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01800470; Kohama, H., Kusunoki‐Ii, M., Kato, K., Kato, M., & Kato, S. ( 2020 ). Immunohistochemical and ultrastructural evidence for the pathogenesis of white matter degeneration in patients with panencephalopathic‐type Creutzfeldt‐Jakob disease: Inducible nitric oxide synthase overexpression in bizarre astrocytes. Neuropathology, 40, 319 – 327. https://doi.org/10.1111/neup.12646; Koob, M., Laugel, V., Durand, M., Fothergill, H., Dalloz, C., Sauvanaud, F., Dollfus, H., Namer, I. J., & Dietemann, J. L. ( 2010 ). Neuroimaging in Cockayne syndrome. AJNR. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 31 ( 9 ), 1623 – 1630. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A2135; Krasovska, V., & Doering, L. C. ( 2018 ). Regulation of IL‐6 secretion by astrocytes via TLR4 in the fragile X mouse model. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience, 11, 272. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00272; Krejciova, Z., Alibhai, J., Zhao, C., Krencik, R., Rzechorzek, N. M., Ullian, E. M., Manson, J., Ironside, J. W., Head, M. W., & Chandran, S. ( 2017 ). Human stem cell‐derived astrocytes replicate human prions in a PRNP genotype‐dependent manner. The Journal of Experimental Medicine, 214 ( 12 ), 3481 – 3495. https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.20161547; Krejciova, Z., Carlson, G. A., Giles, K., & Prusiner, S. B. ( 2019 ). Replication of multiple system atrophy prions in primary astrocyte cultures from transgenic mice expressing human alpha‐synuclein. Acta Neuropathologica Communications, 7 ( 1 ), 81. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40478-019-0703-9; Lanciotti, A., Brignone, M. S., Belfiore, M., Columba‐Cabezas, S., Mallozzi, C., Vincentini, O., Molinari, P., Petrucci, T. C., Visentin, S., & Ambrosini, E. ( 2020 ). Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts disease‐linked MLC1 protein favors gap‐junction intercellular communication by regulating connexin 43 trafficking in astrocytes. Cell, 9 ( 6 ), 1425. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9061425; Lee, B. J., Kim, J. Y., Cho, H. J., & Park, D. ( 2020 ). Sphingosine 1‐phosphate receptor modulation attenuate mechanical allodynia in mouse model of chronic complex regional pain syndrome by suppressing pathogenic astrocyte activation. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine, 45 ( 3 ), 230 – 238. https://doi.org/10.1136/rapm-2019-100801; Lee, F. H. F., Lai, T. K. Y., Su, P., & Liu, F. ( 2019 ). Altered cortical cytoarchitecture in the Fmr1 knockout mouse. Molecular Brain, 12 ( 1 ), 56. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13041-019-0478-8; Lee, S. H., Yoo, S. H., Lee, H. J., Han, D., Lee, J., Jeon, S. H., Cho, E. A., & Park, H. J. ( 2020 ). Anti‐allodynic effects of polydeoxyribonucleotide in an animal model of neuropathic pain and complex regional pain syndrome. Journal of Korean Medical Science, 35 ( 26 ), e225. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2020.35.e225; Lei, Y., Sun, Y., Lu, C., Ma, Z., & Gu, X. ( 2016 ). Activated glia increased the level of proinflammatory cytokines in a resiniferatoxin‐induced neuropathic pain rat model. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine, 41 ( 6 ), 744 – 749. https://doi.org/10.1097/AAP.0000000000000441; Lewandowska, E., Szpak, G. M., Lechowicz, W., Pasennik, E., & Sobczyk, W. ( 2001 ). Ultrastructural changes in neuronal and glial cells in subacute sclerosing panencephalitis: Correlation with disease duration. Folia Neuropathologica, 39 ( 3 ), 193 – 202 Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11770130; Li, B., Gu, L., Zhang, H., Huang, J., Chen, Y., Hertz, L., & Peng, L. ( 2007 ). Up‐regulation of cPLA(2) gene expression in astrocytes by all three conventional anti‐bipolar drugs is drug‐specific and enzyme‐specific. Psychopharmacology, 194 ( 3 ), 333 – 345. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-007-0853-5; Li, L., Lundkvist, A., Andersson, D., Wilhelmsson, U., Nagai, N., Pardo, A. C., Nodin, C., Stahlberg, A., Aprico, K., Larsson, K., Yabe, T., Moons, L., Fotheringham, A., Davies, I., Carmeliet, P., Schwartz, J. P., Pekna, M., Kubista, M., Blomstrand, F., …, Pekny, M. ( 2008 ). Protective role of reactive astrocytes in brain ischemia. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 28 ( 3 ), 468 – 481. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600546; Li, T., Chen, X., Zhang, C., Zhang, Y., & Yao, W. ( 2019 ). An update on reactive astrocytes in chronic pain. Journal of Neuroinflammation, 16 ( 1 ), 140. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-019-1524-2; Li, X., Wu, X., Luo, P., & Xiong, L. ( 2020 ). Astrocyte‐specific NDRG2 gene: Functions in the brain and neurological diseases. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 77 ( 13 ), 2461 – 2472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-019-03406-9; Li, Y., Yin, A., Sun, X., Zhang, M., Zhang, J., Wang, P., Xie, R., Li, W., Fan, Z., Zhu, Y., Wang, H., Dong, H., Wu, S., & Xiong, L. ( 2017 ). Deficiency of tumor suppressor NDRG2 leads to attention deficit and hyperactive behavior. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 127 ( 12 ), 4270 – 4284. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI94455; Li, Y. J., Zhang, X., & Li, Y. M. ( 2020 ). Antineuroinflammatory therapy: Potential treatment for autism spectrum disorder by inhibiting glial activation and restoring synaptic function. CNS Spectrums, 25 ( 4 ), 493 – 501. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852919001603; Liao, X., Liu, Y., Fu, X., & Li, Y. ( 2020 ). Postmortem studies of neuroinflammation in autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Molecular Neurobiology, 57 ( 8 ), 3424 – 3438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-020-01976-5; Liao, Y. H., Zhang, G. H., Jia, D., Wang, P., Qian, N. S., He, F., Zeng, X. T., He, Y., Yang, Y. L., Cao, D. Y., Zhang, Y., Wang, D. S., Tao, K. S., Gao, C. J., & Dou, K. F. ( 2011 ). Spinal astrocytic activation contributes to mechanical allodynia in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes. Brain Research, 1368, 324 – 335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2010.10.044; Liberski, P. P., Brown, P., Cervenakova, L., & Gajdusek, D. C. ( 1997 ). Interactions between astrocytes and oligodendroglia in human and experimental Creutzfeldt‐Jakob disease and scrapie. Experimental Neurology, 144 ( 1 ), 227 – 234. https://doi.org/10.1006/exnr.1997.6422; Liddelow, S. A., Guttenplan, K. A., Clarke, L. E., Bennett, F. C., Bohlen, C. J., Schirmer, L., Bennett, M. L., Münch, A. E., Chung, W. S., Peterson, T. C., Wilton, D. K., Frouin, A., Napier, B. A., Panicker, N., Kumar, M., Buckwalter, M. S., Rowitch, D. H., Dawson, V. L., Dawson, T. M., …, Barres, B. A. ( 2017 ). Neurotoxic reactive astrocytes are induced by activated microglia. Nature, 541 ( 7638 ), 481 – 487. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21029; Linnman, C., Becerra, L., & Borsook, D. ( 2013 ). Inflaming the brain: CRPS a model disease to understand neuroimmune interactions in chronic pain. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, 8 ( 3 ), 547 – 563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11481-012-9422-8; Lipski, J., Wan, C. K., Bai, J. Z., Pi, R., Li, D., & Donnelly, D. ( 2007 ). Neuroprotective potential of ceftriaxone in in vitro models of stroke. Neuroscience, 146 ( 2 ), 617 – 629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.02.003; Liu, L. R., Liu, J. C., Bao, J. S., Bai, Q. Q., & Wang, G. Q. ( 2020 ). Interaction of microglia and astrocytes in the neurovascular unit. Frontiers in Immunology, 11, 1024. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01024; Llorens, F., Lopez‐Gonzalez, I., Thune, K., Carmona, M., Zafar, S., Andreoletti, O., Zerr, I., & Ferrer, I. ( 2014 ). Subtype and regional‐specific neuroinflammation in sporadic creutzfeldt‐jakob disease. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 6, 198. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2014.00198; Lopez‐Hernandez, T., Sirisi, S., Capdevila‐Nortes, X., Montolio, M., Fernandez‐Duenas, V., Scheper, G. C., Knapp, M. S., Casquero, P., Ciruela, F., Ferrer, I., Nunes, V., & Estevez, R. ( 2011 ). Molecular mechanisms of MLC1 and GLIALCAM mutations in megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts. Human Molecular Genetics, 20 ( 16 ), 3266 – 3277. https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddr238; Loria, F., & Diaz‐Nido, J. ( 2015 ). Frataxin knockdown in human astrocytes triggers cell death and the release of factors that cause neuronal toxicity. Neurobiology of Disease, 76, 1 – 12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2014.12.017; Loth, M. K., Choi, J., McGlothan, J. L., Pletnikov, M. V., Pomper, M. G., & Guilarte, T. R. ( 2016 ). TSPO in a murine model of Sandhoff disease: Presymptomatic marker of neurodegeneration and disease pathophysiology. Neurobiology of Disease, 85, 174 – 186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2015.11.001; Lucchinetti, C. F., Guo, Y., Popescu, B. F., Fujihara, K., Itoyama, Y., & Misu, T. ( 2014 ). The pathology of an autoimmune astrocytopathy: Lessons learned from neuromyelitis optica. Brain Pathology, 24 ( 1 ), 83 – 97. https://doi.org/10.1111/bpa.12099; Machelska, H., & Celik, M. O. ( 2016 ). Recent advances in understanding neuropathic pain: Glia, sex differences, and epigenetics. F1000Res, 5, 2743. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.9621.1; Mallard, C., Davidson, J. O., Tan, S., Green, C. R., Bennet, L., Robertson, N. J., & Gunn, A. J. ( 2014 ). Astrocytes and microglia in acute cerebral injury underlying cerebral palsy associated with preterm birth. Pediatric Research, 75 ( 1–2 ), 234 – 240. https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2013.188; Marignier, R., Nicolle, A., Watrin, C., Touret, M., Cavagna, S., Varrin‐Doyer, M., Cavillon, G., Rogemond, V., Confavreux, C., Honnorat, J., & Giraudon, P. ( 2010 ). Oligodendrocytes are damaged by neuromyelitis optica immunoglobulin G via astrocyte injury. Brain, 133 ( 9 ), 2578 – 2591. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awq177; Medin, T., Medin, H., Hefte, M. B., Storm‐Mathisen, J., & Bergersen, L. H. ( 2019 ). Upregulation of the lactate transporter monocarboxylate transporter 1 at the blood‐brain barrier in a rat model of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder suggests hyperactivity could be a form of self‐treatment. Behavioural Brain Research, 360, 279 – 285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2018.12.023; Melamud, L., Fernandez, J. M., Rivarola, V., Di Giusto, G., Ford, P., Villa, A., & Capurro, C. ( 2012 ). Neuromyelitis Optica Immunoglobulin G present in sera from neuromyelitis optica patients affects aquaporin‐4 expression and water permeability of the astrocyte plasma membrane. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 90 ( 6 ), 1240 – 1248. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.22822; Merlini, M., Meyer, E. P., Ulmann‐Schuler, A., & Nitsch, R. M. ( 2011 ). Vascular beta‐amyloid and early astrocyte alterations impair cerebrovascular function and cerebral metabolism in transgenic arcAbeta mice. Acta Neuropathologica, 122 ( 3 ), 293 – 311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-011-0834-y; Merrill, S. T., Nelson, G. R., Longo, N., & Bonkowsky, J. L. ( 2016 ). Cytotoxic edema and diffusion restriction as an early pathoradiologic marker in canavan disease: Case report and review of the literature. Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases, 11 ( 1 ), 169. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13023-016-0549-1; Meshulam, L., Galron, R., Kanner, S., De Pitta, M., Bonifazi, P., Goldin, M., Frenkel, D., Ben‐Jacob, E., & Barzilai, A. ( 2012 ). The role of the neuro‐astro‐vascular unit in the etiology of ataxia telangiectasia. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 3, 157. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2012.00157; Mesquita, R., Bjorkholm, M., Ekman, M., Bogdanovic, G., & Biberfeld, P. ( 1996 ). Polyomavirus‐infected oligodendrocytes and macrophages within astrocytes in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). APMIS, 104 ( 2 ), 153 – 160. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1996.tb00701.x; Miki, Y., Tanji, K., Mori, F., Sakamoto, N., & Wakabayashi, K. ( 2015 ). An autopsy case of refractory epilepsy due to unilateral polymicrogyria in a 65‐year‐old man: Histogenesis of four‐layered polymicrogyric cortex. Neuropathology, 35 ( 6 ), 569 – 574. https://doi.org/10.1111/neup.12219; Miller, R. H., & Raff, M. C. ( 1984 ). Fibrous and protoplasmic astrocytes are biochemically and developmentally distinct. The Journal of Neuroscience, 4 ( 2 ), 585 – 592 Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6366155; Minamitani, M., Tanaka, J., & Maekawa, K. ( 1994 ). Peculiar eosinophilic inclusions within astrocytes in a patient with malformed brain. Brain Development, 16 ( 4 ), 309 – 314. https://doi.org/10.1016/0387-7604(94)90029-9; Minkel, H. R., Anwer, T. Z., Arps, K. M., Brenner, M., & Olsen, M. L. ( 2015 ). Elevated GFAP induces astrocyte dysfunction in caudal brain regions: A potential mechanism for hindbrain involved symptoms in type II Alexander disease. Glia, 63 ( 12 ), 2285 – 2297. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.22893; Miyahara, H., Itonaga, T., Maeda, T., Izumi, T., & Ihara, K. ( 2015 ). Overexpression of p53 but not Rb in the cytoplasm of neurons and small vessels in an autopsy of a patient with Cockayne syndrome. Neuropathology, 35 ( 3 ), 266 – 272. https://doi.org/10.1111/neup.12183; Mizuno, G. O., Wang, Y., Shi, G., Wang, Y., Sun, J., Papadopoulos, S., Broussard, G. J., Unger, E. K., Deng, W., Weick, J., Bhattacharyya, A., Chen, C. Y., Yu, G., Looger, L. L., & Tian, L. ( 2018 ). Aberrant calcium signaling in astrocytes inhibits neuronal excitability in a human down syndrome stem cell model. Cell Reports, 24 ( 2 ), 355 – 365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2018.06.033; Mohri, I., Taniike, M., Taniguchi, H., Kanekiyo, T., Aritake, K., Inui, T., Fukumoto, N., Eguchi, N., Kushi, A., Sasai, H., Kanaoka, Y., Ozono, K., Narumiya, S., Suzuki, K., & Urade, Y. ( 2006 ). Prostaglandin D2‐mediated microglia/astrocyte interaction enhances astrogliosis and demyelination in twitcher. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26 ( 16 ), 4383 – 4393. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4531-05.2006; Molander‐Melin, M., Pernber, Z., Franken, S., Gieselmann, V., Mansson, J. E., & Fredman, P. ( 2004 ). Accumulation of sulfatide in neuronal and glial cells of arylsulfatase A deficient mice. Journal of Neurocytology, 33 ( 4 ), 417 – 427. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:NEUR.0000046572.53905.2c; Muller, W., Heinemann, U., & Schuchmann, S. ( 1997 ). Impaired Ca‐signaling in astrocytes from the Ts16 mouse model of Down syndrome. Neuroscience Letters, 223 ( 2 ), 81 – 84. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3940(97)13406-1; Munoz‐Ballester, C., Berthier, A., Viana, R., & Sanz, P. ( 2016 ). Homeostasis of the astrocytic glutamate transporter GLT‐1 is altered in mouse models of Lafora disease. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1862 ( 6 ), 1074 – 1083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2016.03.008; Munoz‐Ballester, C., Santana, N., Perez‐Jimenez, E., Viana, R., Artigas, F., & Sanz, P. ( 2019 ). In vivo glutamate clearance defects in a mouse model of Lafora disease. Experimental Neurology, 320, 112959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2019.112959; Murphy, S., Zweyer, M., Henry, M., Meleady, P., Mundegar, R. R., Swandulla, D., & Ohlendieck, K. ( 2015 ). Label‐free mass spectrometric analysis reveals complex changes in the brain proteome from the mdx‐4cv mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Clinical Proteomics, 12, 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12014-015-9099-0; Myerowitz, R., Lawson, D., Mizukami, H., Mi, Y., Tifft, C. J., & Proia, R. L. ( 2002 ). Molecular pathophysiology in Tay‐Sachs and Sandhoff diseases as revealed by gene expression profiling. Human Molecular Genetics, 11 ( 11 ), 1343 – 1350. https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/11.11.1343; Nagai, J., Rajbhandari, A. K., Gangwani, M. R., Hachisuka, A., Coppola, G., Masmanidis, S. C., Fanselow, M. S., & Khakh, B. S. ( 2019 ). Hyperactivity with disrupted attention by activation of an astrocyte synaptogenic cue. Cell, 177 ( 5 ), 1280 – 1292. e1220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2019.03.019; Nakamura, K., Mori, F., Kon, T., Tanji, K., Miki, Y., Tomiyama, M., Kurotaki, H., Toyoshima, Y., Kakita, A., Takahashi, H., Yamada, M., & Wakabayashi, K. ( 2016 ). Accumulation of phosphorylated alpha‐synuclein in subpial and periventricular astrocytes in multiple system atrophy of long duration. Neuropathology, 36 ( 2 ), 157 – 167. https://doi.org/10.1111/neup.12243; Niciu, M. J., Ma, X. M., El Meskini, R., Pachter, J. S., Mains, R. E., & Eipper, B. A. ( 2007 ). Altered ATP7A expression and other compensatory responses in a murine model of Menkes disease. Neurobiology of Disease, 27 ( 3 ), 278 – 291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2007.05.004; Nico, B., Frigeri, A., Nicchia, G. P., Corsi, P., Ribatti, D., Quondamatteo, F., Herken, R., Girolamo, F., Marzullo, A., Svelto, M., & Roncali, L. ( 2003 ). Severe alterations of endothelial and glial cells in the blood‐brain barrier of dystrophic mdx mice. Glia, 42 ( 3 ), 235 – 251. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.10216; Nico, B., & Ribatti, D. ( 2012 ). Morphofunctional aspects of the blood‐brain barrier. Current Drug Metabolism, 13 ( 1 ), 50 – 60. https://doi.org/10.2174/138920012798356970; Oberheim, N. A., Takano, T., Han, X., He, W., Lin, J. H., Wang, F., Xu, Q., Wyatt, J. D., Pilcher, W., Ojemann, J. G., Ransom, B. R., Goldman, S. A., & Nedergaard, M. ( 2009 ). Uniquely hominid features of adult human astrocytes. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29 ( 10 ), 3276 – 3287. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4707-08.2009; Oe, Y., Baba, O., Ashida, H., Nakamura, K. C., & Hirase, H. ( 2016 ). Glycogen distribution in the microwave‐fixed mouse brain reveals heterogeneous astrocytic patterns. Glia, 64 ( 9 ), 1532 – 1545. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23020; Ogawa, Y., Furusawa, E., Saitoh, T., Sugimoto, H., Omori, T., Shimizu, S., Kondo, H., Yamazaki, M., Sakuraba, H., & Oishi, K. ( 2018 ). Inhibition of astrocytic adenosine receptor A2A attenuates microglial activation in a mouse model of Sandhoff disease. Neurobiology of Disease, 118, 142 – 154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2018.07.014; Ogawa, Y., Sano, T., Irisa, M., Kodama, T., Saito, T., Furusawa, E., Kaizu, K., Yanagi, Y., Tsukimura, T., Togawa, T., Yamanaka, S., Itoh, K., Sakuraba, H., & Oishi, K. ( 2017 ). FcRgamma‐dependent immune activation initiates astrogliosis during the asymptomatic phase of Sandhoff disease model mice. Scientific Reports, 7, 40518. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep40518; Olabarria, M., Putilina, M., Riemer, E. C., & Goldman, J. E. ( 2015 ). Astrocyte pathology in Alexander disease causes a marked inflammatory environment. Acta Neuropathologica, 130 ( 4 ), 469 – 486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-015-1469-1; Olopade, F. E., Shokunbi, M. T., Azeez, I. A., Andrioli, A., Scambi, I., & Bentivoglio, M. ( 2019 ). Neuroinflammatory response in chronic hydrocephalus in juvenile rats. Neuroscience, 419, 14 – 22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.08.049; Pacey, L. K., Guan, S., Tharmalingam, S., Thomsen, C., & Hampson, D. R. ( 2015 ). Persistent astrocyte activation in the fragile X mouse cerebellum. Brain and Behavior: A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective, 5 ( 10 ), e00400. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.400; Paez, P., Batiz, L. F., Roales‐Bujan, R., Rodriguez‐Perez, L. M., Rodriguez, S., Jimenez, A. J., Rodríguez, E. M., & Perez‐Figares, J. M. ( 2007 ). Patterned neuropathologic events occurring in hyh congenital hydrocephalic mutant mice. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 66 ( 12 ), 1082 – 1092. https://doi.org/10.1097/nen.0b013e31815c1952; Patel, A. M., Wierda, K., Thorrez, L., van Putten, M., De Smedt, J., Ribeiro, L., Tricot, T., Gajjar, M., Duelen, R., Damme, P. V., Waele, L. D., Goemans, N., Winter, C. T., Costamagna, D., Aartsma‐Rus, A., Duyvenvoorde, H., Sampaolesi, M., Buyse, G. M., & Verfaillie, C. M. ( 2019 ). Dystrophin deficiency leads to dysfunctional glutamate clearance in iPSC derived astrocytes. Translational Psychiatry, 9 ( 1 ), 200. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-019-0535-1; Patel, S. C., Suresh, S., Kumar, U., Hu, C. Y., Cooney, A., Blanchette‐Mackie, E. J., Neufeld, E. B., Patel, R. C., Brady, R. O., Pentchev, P. G., & Ong, W. Y. ( 1999 ). Localization of Niemann‐Pick C1 protein in astrocytes: Implications for neuronal degeneration in Niemann‐Pick type C disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 96 ( 4 ), 1657 – 1662. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.96.4.1657; Peng, L., Li, B., & Verkhratsky, A. ( 2016 ). Targeting astrocytes in bipolar disorder. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 16 ( 6 ), 649 – 657. https://doi.org/10.1586/14737175.2016.1171144; Phatnani, H., & Maniatis, T. ( 2015 ). Astrocytes in neurodegenerative disease. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 7 ( 6 ), a020628. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a020628; Ponath, G., Ramanan, S., Mubarak, M., Housley, W., Lee, S., Sahinkaya, F. R., Vortmeyer, A., Raine, C. S., & Pitt, D. ( 2017 ). Myelin phagocytosis by astrocytes after myelin damage promotes lesion pathology. Brain, 140 ( 2 ), 399 – 413. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/aww298; Ponroy Bally, B., Farmer, W. T., Jones, E. V., Jessa, S., Kacerovsky, J. B., Mayran, A., Peng, H., Lefebvre, J. L., Drouin, J., Hayer, A., Ernst, C., & Murai, K. K. ( 2020 ). Human iPSC‐derived Down syndrome astrocytes display genome‐wide perturbations in gene expression, an altered adhesion profile, and increased cellular dynamics. Human Molecular Genetics, 29 ( 5 ), 785 – 802. https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddaa003; Potter, G. B., & Petryniak, M. A. ( 2016 ). Neuroimmune mechanisms in Krabbe’s disease. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 94 ( 11 ), 1341 – 1348. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.23804; Prasad, A. S. ( 2014 ). Zinc is an antioxidant and anti‐inflammatory agent: Its role in human health. Frontiers in Nutrition, 1, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2014.00014; Purcell, A. E., Jeon, O. H., Zimmerman, A. W., Blue, M. E., & Pevsner, J. ( 2001 ). Postmortem brain abnormalities of the glutamate neurotransmitter system in autism. Neurology, 57 ( 9 ), 1618 – 1628. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.57.9.1618; Puy, V., Darwiche, W., Trudel, S., Gomila, C., Lony, C., Puy, L., Lefebvre, T., Vitry, S., Boullier, A., Karim, Z., & Ausseil, J. ( 2018 ). Predominant role of microglia in brain iron retention in Sanfilippo syndrome, a pediatric neurodegenerative disease. Glia, 66 ( 8 ), 1709 – 1723. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23335; Radakovits, R., Barros, C. S., Belvindrah, R., Patton, B., & Muller, U. ( 2009 ). Regulation of radial glial survival by signals from the meninges. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29 ( 24 ), 7694 – 7705. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5537-08.2009; Radford, R., Rcom‐H’cheo‐Gauthier, A., Wong, M. B., Eaton, E. D., Quilty, M., Blizzard, C., Norazit, A., Meedeniya, A., Vickers, J. C., Gai, W. P., Guillemin, G. J., West, A. K., Dickson, T. C., Chung, R., & Pountney, D. L. ( 2015 ). The degree of astrocyte activation in multiple system atrophy is inversely proportional to the distance to alpha‐synuclein inclusions. Molecular and Cellular Neurosciences, 65, 68 – 81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcn.2015.02.015; Rae, M. G., & O’Malley, D. ( 2016 ). Cognitive dysfunction in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: A possible role for neuromodulatory immune molecules. Journal of Neurophysiology, 116 ( 3 ), 1304 – 1315. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00248.2016; Rakic, P. ( 2007 ). The radial edifice of cortical architecture: From neuronal silhouettes to genetic engineering. Brain Research Reviews, 55 ( 2 ), 204 – 219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.02.010; Rapin, I., Weidenheim, K., Lindenbaum, Y., Rosenbaum, P., Merchant, S. N., Krishna, S., & Dickson, D. W. ( 2006 ). Cockayne syndrome in adults: Review with clinical and pathologic study of a new case. Journal of Child Neurology, 21 ( 11 ), 991 – 1006. https://doi.org/10.1177/08830738060210110101; Ray, N. B., Power, C., Lynch, W. P., Ewalt, L. C., & Lodmell, D. L. ( 1997 ). Rabies viruses infect primary cultures of murine, feline, and human microglia and astrocytes. Archives of Virology, 142 ( 5 ), 1011 – 1019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s007050050136; Reemst, K., Noctor, S. C., Lucassen, P. J., & Hol, E. M. ( 2016 ). The indispensable roles of microglia and astrocytes during brain development. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10, 566. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00566; Shafit‐Zagardo, B., Peterson, C., & Goldman, J. E. ( 1988 ). Rapid increases in glial fibrillary acidic protein mRNA and protein levels in the copper‐deficient, brindled mouse. Journal of Neurochemistry, 51 ( 4 ), 1258 – 1266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.1988.tb03095.x; Reiser, G., Schonfeld, P., & Kahlert, S. ( 2006 ). Mechanism of toxicity of the branched‐chain fatty acid phytanic acid, a marker of Refsum disease, in astrocytes involves mitochondrial impairment. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 24 ( 2–3 ), 113 – 122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2005.11.002; Rink, C., Gortzen, A., Veh, R. W., & Pruss, H. ( 2017 ). Serum antibodies targeting neurons of the monoaminergic systems in Guillain‐Barre syndrome. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 372, 318 – 323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2016.11.078; Risher, W. C., Patel, S., Kim, I. H., Uezu, A., Bhagat, S., Wilton, D. K., Pilaz, L. J., Alvarado, J. S., Calhan, O. Y., Silver, D. L., Stevens, B., Calakos, N., Soderling, S. H., & Eroglu, C. ( 2014 ). Astrocytes refine cortical connectivity at dendritic spines. eLife, 3, e04047. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.04047; Roales‐Bujan, R., Paez, P., Guerra, M., Rodriguez, S., Vio, K., Ho‐Plagaro, A., García‐Bonilla, M., Rodríguez‐Pérez, L. M., Domínguez‐Pinos, M. D., Rodríguez, E. M., Pérez‐Fígares, J. M., & Jimenez, A. J. ( 2012 ). Astrocytes acquire morphological and functional characteristics of ependymal cells following disruption of ependyma in hydrocephalus. Acta Neuropathologica, 124 ( 4 ), 531 – 546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-012-0992-6; Ronicke, S., Kruska, N., Kahlert, S., & Reiser, G. ( 2009 ). The influence of the branched‐chain fatty acids pristanic acid and Refsum disease‐associated phytanic acid on mitochondrial functions and calcium regulation of hippocampal neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. Neurobiology of Disease, 36 ( 2 ), 401 – 410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2009.08.005; Rothstein, J. D., Patel, S., Regan, M. R., Haenggeli, C., Huang, Y. H., Bergles, D. E., Jin, L., Hoberg, M. D., Vidensky, S., Chung, D. S., Toan, S. V., Brujin, L. I., Su, Z. Z., Gupta, P., & Fisher, P. B. ( 2005 ). Beta‐lactam antibiotics offer neuroprotection by increasing glutamate transporter expression. Nature, 433 ( 7021 ), 73 – 77. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03180; Rubio‐Villena, C., Viana, R., Bonet, J., Garcia‐Gimeno, M. A., Casado, M., Heredia, M., & Sanz, P. ( 2018 ). Astrocytes: New players in progressive myoclonus epilepsy of Lafora type. Human Molecular Genetics, 27 ( 7 ), 1290 – 1300. https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddy044; Russell, V. A., Oades, R. D., Tannock, R., Killeen, P. R., Auerbach, J. G., Johansen, E. B., & Sagvolden, T. ( 2006 ). Response variability in attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A neuronal and glial energetics hypothesis. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 2, 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-2-30; Russo, F. B., Freitas, B. C., Pignatari, G. C., Fernandes, I. R., Sebat, J., Muotri, A. R., & Beltrao‐Braga, P. C. B. ( 2018 ). Modeling the interplay between neurons and astrocytes in autism using human induced pluripotent stem cells. Biological Psychiatry, 83 ( 7 ), 569 – 578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.09.021; Saez, P. J., Orellana, J. A., Vega‐Riveros, N., Figueroa, V. A., Hernandez, D. E., Castro, J. F., Klein, A. D., Jiang, J. X., Zanlungo, S., & Saez, J. C. ( 2013 ). Disruption in connexin‐based communication is associated with intracellular Ca(2)(+) signal alterations in astrocytes from Niemann‐Pick type C mice. PLoS One, 8 ( 8 ), e71361. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071361; Sahin, M., Henske, E. P., Manning, B. D., Ess, K. C., Bissler, J. J., Klann, E., Kwiatkowski, D. J., Roberds, S. L., Silva, A. J., Hillarie‐Clarke, C. S., Young, L. R., Zervas, M., Mamounas, L. A., & Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Working Group to Update the Research Plan. ( 2016 ). Advances and future directions for tuberous sclerosis complex research: Recommendations from the 2015 strategic planning conference. Pediatric Neurology, 60, 1 – 12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2016.03.015; Sandau, U. S., Alderman, Z., Corfas, G., Ojeda, S. R., & Raber, J. ( 2012 ). Astrocyte‐specific disruption of SynCAM1 signaling results in ADHD‐like behavioral manifestations. PLoS One, 7 ( 4 ), e36424. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036424; Sbarbati, A., Carner, M., Colletti, V., & Osculati, F. ( 1996a ). Extrusion of corpora amylacea from the marginal gila at the vestibular root entry zone. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 55 ( 2 ), 196 – 201. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005072-199602000-00008; Sbarbati, A., Carner, M., Colletti, V., & Osculati, F. ( 1996b ). Myelin‐containing corpora amylacea in vestibular root entry zone. Ultrastructural Pathology, 20 ( 5 ), 437 – 442. https://doi.org/10.3109/01913129609016346; Schluter, E. W., Hunsaker, M. R., Greco, C. M., Willemsen, R., & Berman, R. F. ( 2012 ). Distribution and frequency of intranuclear inclusions in female CGG KI mice modeling the fragile X premutation. Brain Research, 1472, 124 – 137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2012.06.052; Schonfeld, P., & Reiser, G. ( 2016 ). Brain lipotoxicity of phytanic acid and very long‐chain fatty acids. Harmful cellular/mitochondrial activities in Refsum disease and X‐linked adrenoleukodystrophy. Aging and Disease, 7 ( 2 ), 136 – 149. https://doi.org/10.14336/AD.2015.0823; Seifert, G., Schilling, K., & Steinhauser, C. ( 2006 ). Astrocyte dysfunction in neurological disorders: A molecular perspective. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 7 ( 3 ), 194 – 206. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1870; Tabata, H. ( 2015 ). Diverse subtypes of astrocytes and their development during corticogenesis. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 9, 114. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00114; Shimoda, K., Mimaki, M., Fujino, S., Takeuchi, M., Hino, R., Uozaki, H., Hayashi, M., Oka, A., & Mizuguchi, M. ( 2017 ). Brain edema with clasmatodendrosis complicating ataxia telangiectasia. Brain Development, 39 ( 7 ), 629 – 632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2017.02.007; Shintaku, M., & Yutani, C. ( 2004 ). Oligodendrocytes within astrocytes ("emperipolesis") in the white matter in Creutzfeldt‐Jakob disease. Acta Neuropathologica, 108 ( 3 ), 201 – 206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-004-0880-9; Shiow, L. R., Favrais, G., Schirmer, L., Schang, A. L., Cipriani, S., Andres, C., Wright, J. N., Nobuta, H., Fleiss, B., Gressens, P., & Rowitch, D. H. ( 2017 ). Reactive astrocyte COX2‐PGE2 production inhibits oligodendrocyte maturation in neonatal white matter injury. Glia, 65 ( 12 ), 2024 – 2037. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23212; Simhal, A. K., Zuo, Y., Perez, M. M., Madison, D. V., Sapiro, G., & Micheva, K. D. ( 2019 ). Multifaceted changes in synaptic composition and astrocytic involvement in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome. Scientific Reports, 9 ( 1 ), 13855. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-50240-x; Singh, J., Khan, M., & Singh, I. ( 2009 ). Silencing of Abcd1 and Abcd2 genes sensitizes astrocytes for inflammation: Implication for X‐adrenoleukodystrophy. Journal of Lipid Research, 50 ( 1 ), 135 – 147. https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.M800321-JLR200; Singh, S. K., Stogsdill, J. A., Pulimood, N. S., Dingsdale, H., Kim, Y. H., Pilaz, L. J., Kim, I. H., Manheas, A. C., Rodrigues Jr, W. S., Pamukcu, A., Enustun, E., Ertuz, Z., Scheiffele, P., Soderling, S. H., Silver, D. L., Ji, R. R., Medina, A. E., & Eroglu, C. ( 2016 ). Astrocytes assemble thalamocortical synapses by bridging NRX1alpha and NL1 via Hevin. Cell, 164 ( 1–2 ), 183 – 196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.11.034; Siracusa, R., Fusco, R., & Cuzzocrea, S. ( 2019 ). Astrocytes: Role and functions in brain pathologies. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 10, 1114. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.01114; Snook, E. R., Fisher‐Perkins, J. M., Sansing, H. A., Lee, K. M., Alvarez, X., MacLean, A. G., Peterson, K., Lackner, A. A., & Bunnell, B. A. ( 2014 ). Innate immune activation in the pathogenesis of a murine model of globoid cell leukodystrophy. The American Journal of Pathology, 184 ( 2 ), 382 – 396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajpath.2013.10.011; Sofroniew, M. V. ( 2009 ). Molecular dissection of reactive astrogliosis and glial scar formation. Trends in Neurosciences, 32 ( 12 ), 638 – 647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2009.08.002; Sofroniew, M. V., & Vinters, H. V. ( 2010 ). Astrocytes: Biology and pathology. Acta Neuropathologica, 119 ( 1 ), 7 – 35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-009-0619-8; Song, D., Li, B., Yan, E., Man, Y., Wolfson, M., Chen, Y., & Peng, L. ( 2012 ). Chronic treatment with anti‐bipolar drugs causes intracellular alkalinization in astrocytes, altering their functions. Neurochemical Research, 37 ( 11 ), 2524 – 2540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-012-0837-7; Sosunov, A., Olabarria, M., & Goldman, J. E. ( 2018 ). Alexander disease: An astrocytopathy that produces a leukodystrophy. Brain Pathology, 28 ( 3 ), 388 – 398. https://doi.org/10.1111/bpa.12601; Sosunov, A. A., McGovern, R. A., Mikell, C. B., Wu, X., Coughlin, D. G., Crino, P. B., Weiner, H. L., 2nd., Ghatan, S., Goldman, J. E., & McKhann, G. M. ( 2015 ). Epileptogenic but MRI‐normal perituberal tissue in tuberous sclerosis complex contains tuber‐specific abnormalities. Acta Neuropathologica Communications, 3, 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40478-015-0191-5; Sosunov, A. A., Wu, X., Weiner, H. L., Mikell, C. B., Goodman, R. R., Crino, P. D., & McKhann, G. M., 2nd. ( 2008 ). Tuberous sclerosis: A primary pathology of astrocytes? Epilepsia, 49 ( Suppl 2 ), 53 – 62. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01493.x; Spencer, R. F., Sismanis, A., Kilpatrick, J. K., & Shaia, W. T. ( 2002 ). Demyelination of vestibular nerve axons in unilateral Meniere’s disease. Ear, Nose, & Throat Journal, 81 ( 11 ), 785 – 789 Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12472033; Squier, W., & Jansen, A. ( 2014 ). Polymicrogyria: Pathology, fetal origins and mechanisms. Acta Neuropathologica Communications, 2, 80. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40478-014-0080-3; Sugio, S., Tohyama, K., Oku, S., Fujiyoshi, K., Yoshimura, T., Hikishima, K., Yano, R., Fukuda, T., Nakamura, M., Okano, H., Watanabe, M., Fukata, M., Ikenaka, K., & Tanaka, K. F. ( 2017 ). Astrocyte‐mediated infantile‐onset leukoencephalopathy mouse model. Glia, 65 ( 1 ), 150 – 168. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23084; Sun, X. Z., Takahashi, S., Fukui, Y., Hisano, S., Kubota, Y., Sato, H., & Inouye, M. ( 2001 ). Neurogenesis of heterotopic gray matter in the brain of the microcephalic mouse. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 66 ( 6 ), 1083 – 1093. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.10018; Szpak, G. M., Lewandowska, E., Schmidt‐Sidor, B., Popow, J., Kozlowski, P., Lechowicz, W., Kulczycki, J., Zaremba, J., & Dymecki, J. ( 1996 ). Adult schizophrenic‐like variant of adrenoleukodystrophy. Folia Neuropathologica, 34 ( 4 ), 184 – 192 Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9812421; Szymocha, R., Akaoka, H., Dutuit, M., Malcus, C., Didier‐Bazes, M., Belin, M. F., & Giraudon, P. ( 2000 ). Human T‐cell lymphotropic virus type 1‐infected T lymphocytes impair catabolism and uptake of glutamate by astrocytes via Tax‐1 and tumor necrosis factor alpha. Journal of Virology, 74 ( 14 ), 6433 – 6441. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.74.14.6433-6441.2000; Takeda, S., Ohama, E., & Ikuta, F. ( 1989 ). Adrenoleukodystrophy—Early ultrastructural changes in the brain. Acta Neuropathologica, 78 ( 2 ), 124 – 130. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00688199; Tata, D. A., Marciano, V. A., & Anderson, B. J. ( 2006 ). Synapse loss from chronically elevated glucocorticoids: Relationship to neuropil volume and cell number in hippocampal area CA3. The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 498 ( 3 ), 363 – 374. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.21071; Teijido, O., Martinez, A., Pusch, M., Zorzano, A., Soriano, E., Del Rio, J. A., Palacín, M., & Estevez, R. ( 2004 ). Localization and functional analyses of the MLC1 protein involved in megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts. Human Molecular Genetics, 13 ( 21 ), 2581 – 2594. https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddh291; Thomas, R., Salter, M. G., Wilke, S., Husen, A., Allcock, N., Nivison, M., Nnoli, A. N., & Fern, R. ( 2004 ). Acute ischemic injury of astrocytes is mediated by Na‐K‐Cl cotransport and not Ca2+ influx at a key point in white matter development. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 63 ( 8 ), 856 – 871. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnen/63.8.856; Tian, B., Zhou, M., Yang, Y., Yu, L., Luo, Z., Tian, D., Wang, K., Cui, M., Chen, H., Fu, Z. F., & Zhao, L. ( 2017 ). Lab‐attenuated rabies virus causes abortive infection and induces cytokine expression in astrocytes by activating mitochondrial antiviral‐signaling protein signaling pathway. Frontiers in Immunology, 8, 2011. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2017.02011; Tian, G., Luo, X., Tang, C., Cheng, X., Chung, S. K., Xia, Z., Cheung, C. W., & Guo, Q. ( 2017 ). Astrocyte contributes to pain development via MMP2‐JNK1/2 signaling in a mouse model of complex regional pain syndrome. Life Sciences, 170, 64 – 71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2016.11.030; Tian, R., Wu, X., Hagemann, T. L., Sosunov, A. A., Messing, A., McKhann, G. M., & Goldman, J. E. ( 2010 ). Alexander disease mutant glial fibrillary acidic protein compromises glutamate transport in astrocytes. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 69 ( 4 ), 335 – 345. https://doi.org/10.1097/NEN.0b013e3181d3cb52; Toker, L., Mancarci, B. O., Tripathy, S., & Pavlidis, P. ( 2018 ). Transcriptomic evidence for alterations in astrocytes and parvalbumin interneurons in subjects with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 84 ( 11 ), 787 – 796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.07.010; Uhlmann, E. J., Apicelli, A. J., Baldwin, R. L., Burke, S. P., Bajenaru, M. L., Onda, H., Kwiatkowski, D., & Gutmann, D. H. ( 2002 ). Heterozygosity for the tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) gene products results in increased astrocyte numbers and decreased p27‐Kip1 expression in TSC2+/− cells. Oncogene, 21 ( 25 ), 4050 – 4059. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1205435; Uhlmann, E. J., Li, W., Scheidenhelm, D. K., Gau, C. L., Tamanoi, F., & Gutmann, D. H. ( 2004 ). Loss of tuberous sclerosis complex 1 (Tsc1) expression results in increased Rheb/S6K pathway signaling important for astrocyte cell size regulation. Glia, 47 ( 2 ), 180 – 188. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.20036; Uhlmann, E. J., Wong, M., Baldwin, R. L., Bajenaru, M. L., Onda, H., Kwiatkowski, D. J., Yamada, K., & Gutmann, D. H. ( 2002 ). Astrocyte‐specific TSC1 conditional knockout mice exhibit abnormal neuronal organization and seizures. Annals of Neurology, 52 ( 3 ), 285 – 296. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.10283; Valles‐Ortega, J., Duran, J., Garcia‐Rocha, M., Bosch, C., Saez, I., Pujadas, L., Serafin, A., Cañas, Xavier, Soriano, E., Delgado‐García, J. M., Gruart, A., & Guinovart, J. J. ( 2011 ). Neurodegeneration and functional impairments associated with glycogen synthase accumulation in a mouse model of Lafora disease. EMBO Molecular Medicine, 3 ( 11 ), 667 – 681. https://doi.org/10.1002/emmm.201100174; van der Knaap, M. S., Boor, I., & Estevez, R. ( 2012 ). Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts: Chronic white matter oedema due to a defect in brain ion and water homoeostasis. Lancet Neurology, 11 ( 11 ), 973 – 985. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70192-8; van Scheppingen, J., Iyer, A. M., Prabowo, A. S., Muhlebner, A., Anink, J. J., Scholl, T., Feucht, M., Jansen, F. E., Spliet, W. G., Krsek, P., Zamecnik, J., Buccoliero, A. M., Giordano, F., Genitori, L., Kotulska, K., Jozwiak, S., Jaworski, J., Liszewska, E., Vilet, E. A., & Aronica, E. ( 2016 ). Expression of microRNAs miR21, miR146a, and miR155 in tuberous sclerosis complex cortical tubers and their regulation in human astrocytes and SEGA‐derived cell cultures. Glia, 64 ( 6 ), 1066 – 1082. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.22983; van Scheppingen, J., Mills, J. D., Zimmer, T. S., Broekaart, D. W. M., Iori, V., Bongaarts, A., Anink, J. J., Iyer, A. M., Korotkov, A., Jansen, F. E., Hecke, W., Spilet, W. G., Rijen, P. C., Baayen, J. C., Vezzani, A., Vilet, E. A., & Aronica, E. ( 2018 ). miR147b: A novel key regulator of interleukin 1 beta‐mediated inflammation in human astrocytes. Glia, 66 ( 5 ), 1082 – 1097. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.23302; Vasile, F., Dossi, E., & Rouach, N. ( 2017 ). Human astrocytes: Structure and functions in the healthy brain. Brain Structure & Function, 222 ( 5 ), 2017 – 2029. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-017-1383-5; Viana, G. M., Gonzalez, E. A., Alvarez, M. M. P., Cavalheiro, R. P., do Nascimento, C. C., Baldo, G., D’Almeida, V., Lima, M. A., Pshezhetsky, A. V., & Nader, H. B. ( 2020 ). Cathepsin B‐associated activation of amyloidogenic pathway in murine mucopolysaccharidosis type I brain cortex. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21 ( 4 ), 1459. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21041459; Victoria, G. S., Arkhipenko, A., Zhu, S., Syan, S., & Zurzolo, C. ( 2016 ). Astrocyte‐to‐neuron intercellular prion transfer is mediated by cell‐cell contact. Scientific Reports, 6, 20762. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep20762; Vincent, T., Saikali, P., Cayrol, R., Roth, A. D., Bar‐Or, A., Prat, A., & Antel, J. P. ( 2008 ). Functional consequences of neuromyelitis optica‐IgG astrocyte interactions on blood‐brain barrier permeability and granulocyte recruitment. Journal of Immunology, 181 ( 8 ), 5730 – 5737. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.181.8.5730; Volpe, J. J., Kinney, H. C., Jensen, F. E., & Rosenberg, P. A. ( 2011 ). The developing oligodendrocyte: Key cellular target in brain injury in the premature infant. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 29 ( 4 ), 423 – 440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2011.02.012; Wallingford, J., Scott, A. L., Rodrigues, K., & Doering, L. C. ( 2017 ). Altered developmental expression of the astrocyte‐secreted factors Hevin and SPARC in the fragile X mouse model. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience, 10, 268. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2017.00268; Walz, W., & Lang, M. K. ( 1998 ). Immunocytochemical evidence for a distinct GFAP‐negative subpopulation of astrocytes in the adult rat hippocampus. Neuroscience Letters, 257 ( 3 ), 127 – 130. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3940(98)00813-1

  16. 16
  17. 17
    Review
  18. 18
  19. 19
    Dissertation/ Thesis
  20. 20